Bisnu B. Bhandari
IUCN, PO Box 3923, Kupondole, Lalitpur, Kathmandu, Nepal
Introduction
Wetland means many things to many people and differs from place to place. However, the common element is water. Water is bloodstream of a wetland. No wetland without water. Or no water no wetland. In reality a wetland (site) is the source of water on the Earth. Therefore, a wetland is simply an area that is covered with water for a part of the day or year. The most important thing is that it has to be wet, not necessity all the time. It is found that they are biologically most productive when they dry out periodically. Therefore wetland is the interface of land and water.
Wetlands are the places of creation of all life. All kind of life, terrestrial, aquatic, avian, amphibians and even reptiles are found in a wetland.
There are many definitions of a wetland; some are broad and some, narrow. Because of varieties of wetlands, rich in biological resources, named according to the landscape it belongs to, wetland is always used in a plural form.
The Ramsar Convention definition is broad one. There are certain advantages to using it. The Ramsar definition is internationally accepted. According to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, wetlands are;
“Areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static, flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water, the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters.” (Ramsar Convention Secretariat; 2006:7)
The central message of the Ramsar Convention is the need for sustainable use of all wetlands and the List of Wetlands of International Importance or the Ramsar site is the Convention’s “flagship”.
Some examples of wetlands in Nepal are (1) lakes and ponds, (2) rivers & streams, (3) glaciers, glacial rivers and lakes, (4) meadows and peatlands, (5) fish ponds, rice paddies, (5) marshes (ghol or dhap) & swamps, (6) canal and reservoir.
Total Values from Wetlands
Wetland is composed of a number of physical (soil and water), biological (flora and fauna) and chemical components (nutrients). The dynamic interaction among and within physical, biological & chemical components (soils, water, plants, and animals) entitles wetlands to many uses, functions, values and benefits (Mitch & Gosselink, 1993). Because of this interaction, wetlands are highly productive ecosystem providing many important benefits. These benefits sometimes described as “goods and services”, may be wetland benefits (ground water discharge), use of the wetlands or its products (wood collection site), attributes (biodiversity, cultural heritage). Most of the benefits provided by wetlands are essential to communities and to industrial and agricultural activities.
Wetlands are valuable for the survival of all life including human beings. They are multi-functional and provide multi-benefits to the entire ecosystem. According to Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005), the ecosystem services provided by wetland are categorized under four groups, provisioning (food, freshwater, fiber, fuel, fish, herbs and genes), regulating (climate, water, erosion & natural hazard regulation, water purification, waste water treatment, pollination), cultural (spiritual, inspirational, recreational, aesthetic and educational) & supporting (soil formation, nutrient cycling & primary production).
Wetland ecosystems, including rivers, lakes, rice fields and coastal areas, provide many services that contribute to human well-beings and poverty alleviation. Some groups of people, particularly that living near wetlands, are highly dependent on these services and are directly harmed by their degradation (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005).
Total values derived from wetlands
The total values for wetlands that make a distinction between use values and non-use values, with further classification are provided by Barbier et al. (1997) in Table 1.
Table 1. Total Values of Wetlands
Use Value
Non-use value
Products
Ecological Functions
Option values
Existence Values
1.
Fisheries
Nutrient retention
Potential use
Biodiversity (gene)
2
Agricultural resources
Water discharge & recharge
Future value
Culture/heritage
3
Forest resources
Storm control
Bequest value
4
Forage resources
Shoreline stabilization
Research/Education
5
Wildlife resources
Micro-climate stabilization
6
Water supply
Biomass export
7
Peat/energy
Sediment retention
Flood control
Recreation/tourism
Water transport
Source: Modified after Barbier et al. (1997: )
The world view point of wetlands differs from region to region. For example, in some parts of the world, wetlands are considered “useless and wasteland” because they are water-logged and not suitable for any production. In tropical region, they are considered the home of mosquitoes, poisonous snakes, insects etc. Because of this, they are looked upon as the number one “public enemy”. They are real obstacle to development, which is why they are counter-productive and counter-cultural. Therefore, the destroyers were hailed as social heroes. For example, we can take the example of Ne Muni, who drained the Kali Dah, the present Kathmandu Valley and made it suitable for habitation. That is why wetlands always fall victim of 4D’s (diversion of hydrological regime, drainage, dredging and development).
In the hills of Nepal wetlands were regarded as the best places for rice paddy fields. Therefore, they are right way converted into rice fields. If not rice paddies, then they are drained to convert it into agricultural fields. In the worse case, they are used as common pasture. In addition to the above, wetlands are converted into fisheries or fish ponds or even integrated fishery in the rural area of the Terai. In urban areas, they were filled in and sold as real state pieces, road or damping sites.
Wetlands are incredible habitats; they support a range of species; they provide an extensive food chain; they are the reservoirs of natural resources; they are the storage of water; they are the places of primary productivity upon which countless species of plants and animals depend for their survival, often with their concentration. They are just like a refrigerator where one can find and have food; for example, the Dhimals of Jhapa in eastern Nepal go to the stream to catch some fish for curry right after the Kasaudi with rice and water is put on the oven; they serve as the womb of an ecological system that is important fish breeding and spawning area. Therefore, they are called the biological supermarket, or biological laboratory (used as a natural school for biodiversity, learn natural history, cultural heritage and information, visit for tranquility, openness etc). In deed, it gives “plenty of foods but no money”.
Wetlands are called the kidneys of the landscape: They play a role in naturally cleaning water. Wetlands act like a sponge. They have been found to cleanse polluted waters, recharge aquifers, purify water and prevent eutrophication. They become vitally important to hydrological and chemical cycles.
Wetlands are also effective in removing high levels of nitrogen and phosphorous (commonly associated with agricultural runoff), thereby preventing eutrophication and the intrusion of these elements into water source including groundwater that may be used for drinking purposes.
Wetland plants remove 99.9% of the faecal colifirm bacteria. Water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes) is used in West Bengal to remove heavy metals while other wetland plants remove grease and oil. Oysters are also used to “clean up” the pollutants in the water. East Calcutta marshes are the good examples of how the city sewage and domestic refuse is transformed daily into 2,000 tons of fish and 150 tons of vegetables.
Wetlands are valuable as sources, sinks and transformers of a multitude of chemicals, biological and genetic materials. Because of their functions in flood control, retention and ecological functions, they are also called “natural engineer"
Source of supernatural powers
Wetlands are rich in spiritual, religious and cultural values. In order to elaborate the idea, we can take the example of lotus. In the Padma Era, the Earth was full of water and Lord Bishnu was fast a sleep on water. From his naval point, a lotus plant grew and sitting on its leaf Brahma, the creator created life and things on the Earth. Therefore the lotus because of its origin from the navy of Lord and the first place of all creations is considered sacred in Hindu religion. In Buddhism, there is a philosophy called “Satdharma Pundarika”, which is about lotus. Buddhist respect lotus because it grows well in marshy land drawing all its foods and nutrients from the dirty and useless land. Fish is also an auspicious item. For example, in Golden Era, Lord Bishnu reincarnated in the form of a big fish and rescued the Earth to protect cows, Brahman, deities, hermit, Veda, morality and property. Likewise, the Mansarovar Lake & Gosainkunda are regarded as sacred place because they are respectively the first one created by Brahmaji and Lord Shiva for his suppressing excruciating pain caused by his swallowing “Kalkut Bish”, a fatal poison. Other examples of wetlands where religious importance is attached in Nepal are briefly described below.
a. The Kiratis (Khotang) offer Panchabali to the Sapsu Khola.
b. Goats and pigeons are sacrificed at the confluence of the Kamala and the Gwang stream (Sindhuli District).
c. In Shrawan Buddshist women perform a puja called Goonla Puja at the bank of the Bagmati.
d. Women solemnize prayers and worship to the Sun on the occasion of Chhat Parba.
e. Jata Pokhari of Dolkha and Ramechhap districts; Rinmokchhe Daha (Mugu) and Kubinde Daha (Salyan) are personified as Lord Shiva meaning the power of fertility. Couples wishing to have child visit and workshop the Jata Pokhari and Rinmokchhe Dah, whereas couples wishing only son take sacred dip into the Kubinde Daha.
f. In Mustang people worship Lake Tilicho believing it prevents calamities such as drought, heavy rain, avalanche, epidemics, misfortune, etc. People believ that when the Bhabishya Bakta Pokhari (Bhojpur) changes its color to red, it presages some kind of misfortune or sinister to the community and the country as a whole.
g. At the Sinjema Tal, young girl wishing for a handsome husband visit and worship the tal.
h. Gokarneswor and Mata Tirtha link the devotees to the soul of the dead father and mother respectively.
i. Shilu Maye, Dhan Nanch (Limbu), Horia Dance (Tharu), Asare Dance, Ropain Jatra, not only provide entertainment to people but also learn and interact with one another.
Invaluable to People all over world
As mentioned earlier, the ecological interaction between soils, plants and animals allow wetlands to perform various functions.
a. Benefits/use, functions, livelihoods, biological, cultural, scientific, educational and recreational values make wetlands “invaluable to people” all over the world. Wetlands are therefore wonderland (pandora’s box) of biological resources and the sources of livelihoods for the people.
b. Wetlands harbours 3 species of wild rice; Oryza rufipogan, O. officinales and O. nivara They are recorded in the Ajingara swamp of Kapilvastu. Hygroryza aristata is the wild relative of rice community found in the Terai. These species have the potential to contribute to the improvement of commercial varieties. A commercially bred crop variety has a life span of 5-10 years before new genetic materials are required to improve its ability to combat pest and diseases.
c. The Salman lives in the sea but spawns in the river. The eel lives in the river but spawn in the sea. Likewise, fish and pawn need wetland for spawning and then migrate through river. Therefore, wetlands are important for the migratory species as well.
d. Therefore, wetlands have become cause ce’le’bre for conservation-minded people and organizations. It causes widespread interests throughout the world in part because they have been disappearing at an alarming rate and in part because their loss represents an easily recognizable loss of nature to economic progress. Many scientists, engineers, lawyers and regulators are now finding it both useful and necessary to become specialists in order to understand, preserve and even reconstruct these fragile ecosystems (Mitch & Gosselink, 1993).
e. Rice is the staple diet of 3 billion people and fish, for 1 billion people. Wetland plays a key role in pharmaceutical industry, where up to 80% depend on them for primary health care. Recreation alone involves millions of people pouring millions of dollars.
Global importance of Nepal’s wetlands
Nepal is dotted with small wetlands such as rivers, lakes, ponds, marshes, swampy lands, irrigation canals, fish ponds and reservoirs. Even though Nepal’s wetlands are small in size, they are strategically important because of the following.
(1) Nepal provides a good habitat for endangered species of fauna such as Asiatic wild buffalo (Bubalus bubalis), Greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), Gangetic dolphin (Platanista gangetica), Swamp deer (Cervus duvauceli duvauceli) and Gharial (Gravialis gangeticus). Bull frog (Rana tigrina) and Himalayan newt (Thakthake in Nepali; Tylototriton verrucosus) are endemic to Nepal.
(2) The wetlands of Nepal serve as rest areas for the migrant birds as well as habitat for some globally threatened birds such as (1) Demoiselle crane (Anthropoides virgo), (2) cinereous vulture, (3) common greenshank, (4) common teal, (5) Eurasian curlew, (5) godwall, (7) great cormorant, (8) greater spotted eagle, (9) imperial eagle, (10) Kentish polver, (11) northern pintail, (12) northern shoveler, (13) Pallas gull and (14) Ruddy shelduck (Hem Sagar Baral, per. comm.). The Ibisibis (Ibidorhyncha struthersii), which breeds in the braided river valleys of Himalaya is declining in the region and can be an indicator species for climate change in the Himalayan region (Baral, 2008). Likewise, it was reported in the newspaper that the Syke’s nightjar (Caprimulgus mahrattenis) is a frequent visitor to Nepal. This bird breeds in Pakistan and India and winters in south of Central China.
(3) Riverine wetlands are good waterways for the migratory fishes. The Salman lives in the sea but spawns in the river. The eel lives in the river but spawn in the sea.
(4) Terai’s wetlands are the sources of genes. Three species of wild rice; Oryza rufipogan, O. officinales and O. nivara are found in the wetlands of the Terai. Hygroryza aristata is found in the Terai. These species have the potential to provide genes for the improvement of commercial varieties.
Wetland-dependent People
Wetland-dependent people live around and about wetland sites or along the river basins. They are directly dependent on wetland resources for at least part of their life. They are provincial in nature. In most cases, they are landless, near-landless or do not enjoy secure landownership. These people have their own language, culture, physical appearance and way of life. Their distribution is scattered throughout Nepal. According to the IUCN’s Terai Inventory (Bhandari,1998), over 20 indigenous communities are dependent on wetlands in Nepal. Six groups that are found in Nepal’s mountain are Danwar, Kumal, Darai, Baramu, Pode and Majhi. The groups are found along the river basin and valleys. Indigenous groups of people found in the Terai are Tharu, Malaha, Sunaha, Bote, Dhimal, Rajbashi, Meche, Musahar, Gongi, Bantar, Mukhia, Dusad, Sohani, Kewat, Kusaha, Dhangar and Kachchhare.
Loss of wetlands
Bhandari (2009) has summarized factors responsible for the loss of wetlands in Nepal and designated them by the acronym of COPIS.
C = Conversion of wetlands: Wetlands are suffering from continuous diversion of water sources, drainage, dredging (like many riverine wetlands) and developmental plans and various forms of encroachment.
O = Over-exploitation of resources
P = Pollution of water (victim of direct discharge of sewage and waste water, run-off and dumping site).
I = Invasion of alien species such as (1) water hyacinth (Jal Kumbhi, Eichornia crassipes), (2) Kumbhika (Pistia stratiotes), (3) Jaljambhu (Alternanthera philoxeroides), (4) Besharm (Ipomea carnea sub sp fistulosa), (5) Karaunte grasses (Leersia hexandra), (6) Lahare Banmara (Mikania micrantha), (7)Lajjawati (Mimosa pudica) and (8) Amla Patte Jhar (Myriophyllum aquaricum).
S = Sedimentation (gradual deposit of silt, sediments and debris, moraine and others)
Conclusion and way forward
As elsewhere, wetlands are omni-present in Nepal as well. Defective model of development particularly skewed towards economic prosperity and material development is the real culprit of degradation, diminution and even disappearance of wetlands from the physical map. Our wetlands are important not only for ourselves but also for global communities. However, they have been victim of our own actions. Therefore, it is important that we plan our activities in such a way that we control our own actions to save wetlands and allied resources. In order to catalyze the wise use of wetlands in Nepal, the following things needs to be done
(1) Development of a national wetland act to deal with the issue concerning wetlands (Belbase and Thapa, 2008)
(2) Preparation of a comprehensive national inventory covering all the eco-zones and regions.
(3) Establishment of a national wetland committee at the apex to enlist the support and coordination of all the stakeholders and the wetland development authority at each site for the implementation of wetland programs at the grass roots.
(4) Securing and protecting tenancy and usufruct rights of the wetland-dependent peoples, who have been practicing wetlands and wetland-related activities for the time immemorial.
Reference
Barbier, E. B., M. Acreman and D. Knowler. 1997. Economic Valuation of Wetlands: A Guide for Policy Makers and Planners. Gland: Ramsar Convention Bureau.
Belbase, N. and L. B. Thapa. 2008. Legislative and Policy Measures for Conservation of Wetalnds: Opportunities and Challenges. In: Water Tower of Asia: Experiences in Wetland Management in Nepal edited by Bishnu B. Bhadari, Seung Oh Suh and Sung Hoon Woo. Chanwon: Gyeongnam Ramsar Environmental Foundation (GREF).
Bhandari, B. 1998. An Inventory of Nepal’s Terai Wetlands. Final Report. Kathmandu: IUCN Nepal.
Bhandari, B. 2009. Wise Use of Wetlands in Nepal. Banko Janakari, Special Issue, February 2009.
Government of Nepal (nd ). Conservation and Sustainable Use of Wetlands in Nepal. GON/GEF/UNDP.
Karki, S. and S. Thomas (Eds.). 2004. A Review of the Status and Threats to Wetlands in Nepal. Kathmandu: IUCN Nepal Country Office.
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) Ecosystem and Human Well-Being: Wetlands and Water. Synthesis. Washington: World Resource Institute.
Mitsch, W. J. And J. G. Gosselink. 1993. Wetlands. 2nd Edition. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Ramsar Convention Secretariat. 2006. The Ramasar Convention Manual: A Guide to the Convention on Wetlands. 4th Edition. Gland: Ramsar Convention Secretariat.
